History and Film

Before I was a teacher, and certainly before I had this blog, I did some work as a film reviewer for a now-defunct online blogging network. It mostly involved getting sent screeners for small-release films that no one cared about but in-between these obligations I still managed to watch and review over a thousand films of my own choice. 

My cinematic self-education is by no means complete, I still have quite a list of 'canon' films that I'm working my way through, but I do have a fairly confident awareness of what the history of cinema looks like. Here are some posts I've previously made about how the history of cinema can be utilised as a resource for the classroom:

• The Close-Up
• The 180 Degree Rule
• Early Editing
  

Today, however, I want to move away from looking at the history of cinema and look instead at how the medium of film is used to represent history itself. The previous blog posts are intended for use in an English or Film Studies classroom, whereas the following will be more relevant for the subject of History.

It's fair to say that the average History teacher has little curriculum-based used for a discussion on the history of cinema (a subject that focuses as much on storytelling techniques as it does on context) so this blog post will inevitably be focused on content and perspective instead. Here we will look at a few examples of history-focused films that I've specifically liked as a History teacher, and I'll highlight how they fit with our current secondary school History syllabuses in NSW. There are, of course, some things to be aware of:

• Some of these films are appropriate for students to watch.
• Some of these films are not appropriate for students to watch.
• Some of these films may be useful in other KLAs because the content connects to a relevant area of study.

Where a film fits in regard to the above will be up to a teacher's professional and informed judgment. The films that are not appropriate for students to watch have been included for a couple of reasons:

1. They are useful in broadening or deepening the teacher's understanding of a topic, and this in itself can be a powerful tool as it helps us look in particular directions with our lesson planning or research.
2. It may be negotiated to watch one of these films with some senior cohorts through the use of principal, head teacher, and parental permission. This can depend on classification and community context.
   
3. The teacher might select appropriate scenes for use rather than showing the entire film.

So, with all that out of the way, here are ten great History-based films that I think are useful:

Haxan (directed by Benjamin Christensen, Denmark, 1922)

Haxan is an unusual history of witchcraft that defies our modern view of what a documentary should look like. A 100 minute documentary in 7 parts, Haxan provides a narrative overview of witchcraft through the ages - presenting pagan rituals (with dramatised appearances from the Devil!) alongside more rational sequences that suggest medieval torture and mental illness explain why innocent people would have confessed to being witches in the face of superstition. As such, Haxan exists as a fascinating piece of historiography that charts changing beliefs while blurring the lines between reality and fantasy. The film itself perhaps demonstrates the conflicted beliefs of the 1920s in the way that it confidently places the rational and irrational side by side. The body of critical literature analysing Haxan is perhaps just as valuable as the film itself. 

Would work well for: 

• History 7-10 - Stage 4 Medieval Europe (Teacher)
  
• Year 12 History Extension - Witch Hunts and Witch Trials (Teacher, Students)

Battleship Potemkin (directed by Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union, 1925)

This innovative film (the infamous Odessa steps montage remains highly influential for many great directors) is an invaluable historical resource in the sense that it was made under the Soviet regime in its pre-Stalin days. Focusing on the Potemkin mutiny that formed part of the fabric of the 1905 Russian Revolution under Tsar Nicholas Romanov II, Eisenstein's meticulous drama reconstructs historical events in a fairly truthful manner despite its function as 1920s Soviet propaganda. From a teacher's point of view, the film works as either a way of examining developing rebellion against the Romanovs or as an exercise in looking at the film's use as propaganda (the textual history of Battleship Potemkin is just as historically fascinating as the film itself - pre-, during, and post-Stalin versions all serve to demonstrate the changing political landscape of Russia over time).

Would work well for:

• Year 11 Modern History - The Decline and Fall of the Romanovs (Teacher, Students)
• Year 12 Modern History - Russia and the Soviet Union (Teacher, Students)
  

Burn! (directed by Gillo Pontecorvo, Italy, 1969)

At first glance Burn! (or Quemada) might seem a murky choice owing to its generalised nature. Whilst its focus is on a fictional Caribbean island in the 19th century, the themes and main beats of Burn! are still very much in keeping with a common pattern of imperialism, colonialism, slavery, and commercial exploitation. Made at the height of the decolonisation period, the film also stands out (alongside Pontecorvo's more famous film The Battle of Algiers) as one of the more authentic cinematic depictions of modern historical forces. From a curriculum standpoint, it helps to visually illuminate the motivations behind European colonialism and the significance of imperialism and its impact on the modern world.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - The Shaping of the Modern World: The Age of Imperialism (Teacher)
  

Newsfront (directed by Phillip Noyce, Australia, 1978)

Newsfront is such a broad yet rich text for any History teacher. A classic of Australian cinema, it focuses on the era of 1948-1956, a period in which the advent of television was shaping the way in which news was collected and delivered. Noyce's script mixes archival footage with a wrap-around narrative to insert its newsreel cameramen characters into Australian history. If your knowledge of this period in our history is a little shaky, this film provides a relatively quick overview of the key events (the referendum to ban the Communist Party in Australia, Robert Menzies' big comeback as Prime Minister, postwar migration to Australia, and the arrival of television). For senior students, it provides a chance to examine the role of cinema in representing our history in a certain way.

Would work well for:

• History 7-10 - Stage 5 The Globalising World: Popular Culture (Teacher)
• History 7-10 - Stage 5 The Globalising World: Migration Experiences (Teacher)
• History 7-10 - Stage 5 School Developed Topic: The Cold War (Teacher) 
• Year 11 Modern History - The Representation and Commemoration of the Past (Teacher, Students)
• Year 11 Modern History - Case Study: Australia and the Rise of Communism (Teacher)
• Year 12 History Extension - An Australian Primer Minister: Robert Menzies (Teacher, Students)

Cry Freedom (directed by Richard Attenborough, United Kingdom, 1987)

A politically-charged depiction of Apartheid South Africa made while Apartheid was still happening. As a British film made in the 1980s, it's no surprise that Cry Freedom functions as a perfect example of the 'white saviour' narrative. It's a little disappointing that the focus shifts from Steve Biko around the halfway mark but, that said, it's a fairly accessible and engaging piece of cinema and the Biko half features a fantastic performance from a young Denzel Washington. If you're looking for something that your students will be able to easily follow (perhaps it might even make a few things clearer for them - some students benefit immensely from perceiving history through the lens of a cinematic narrative) then Cry Freedom will definitely do the job.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - Change in the Modern World: Apartheid in South Africa. (Teacher, Students)
  

Kundun (directed by Martin Scorsese, USA, 1997)

Scorsese's biopic of the Dalai Lama is a high quality production that goes some way towards realistically depicting the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1950 and the ideological/religious tensions surrounding it. I've personally used this one with a Modern History class but I did cut it down to about half its length so that we could focus on the sections relevant to our topic. Kundun as a film in its own right is probably a little too slow for the average teenager, however, the scenes in which the Dalai Lama meets with Chairman Mao are an essential window into the relations between Communist China and bordering territories. Scorsese's film is generally quite historically accurate - albeit quite toned down in terms of the violence that came alongside the Invasion of Tibet (no doubt owing to Hollywood's sensitivity to potential commercial markets in Asia). 

Would work well for:

• Year 11 Modern History - Case Study: Tibet in the Modern World. (Teacher, Students)
• Year 12 Modern History - Change in the Modern World: The Cultural Revolution to Tiananmen Square. (Teacher, Students)
  

Five Broken Cameras (directed by Emad Burnat and Guy Davidi, Palestine, 2011)

A story of non-violent resistance to the Israeli settlement of the last pockets of Palestinian territory, as recorded by Palestinian documentarian Emad Burnat on five cameras that got destroyed by Israelis one-by-one. In a topic that's so politically fraught and volatile, Burnat is able to provide an irrefutable record that helps to illuminate what's currently happening in Israel and the methods currently being used to eradicate Palestinians from their territory. In terms of the history syllabus, the parameters for the Arab-Israeli Conflict option might be 1948-1996 but the dot point that pertains to the rise and significance of the Israeli settler movement echoes through to the modern day. This documentary does an excellent job of bringing clarity to motivations, actions, and impacts of this movement that don't need to necessarily be tethered directly to any particular time period - the situation remains unresolved and this film still assists in coming to an understanding of the complexities involved.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - Peace and Conflict: The Arab-Israeli Conflict. (Teacher)
  

The Act of Killing and The Look of Silence (directed by Joshua Oppenheimer, joint international production, 2012 and 2014)

The Act of Killing is an astounding and unusual documentary in which the director asks surviving Indonesian death squad members to re-enact the murders they committed in the 1960s. The Look of Silence is an electrifying and intense companion piece in which the surviving relative of one of the victims confronts his brother's killer. These documentaries unpack and go some way toward explaining why the tragedy of Indonesia's recent history is unlikely to ever find a true sense of closure. When the government allowed and encouraged such widespread civil murder yet also distanced itself officially, thus making it a 'people's issue', what can be done? When thousands killed millions, and the resultant regime remains in power 50 years later, what can be done? It essentially means the killers have no problem speaking openly about the violence they wreaked upon so many because the issue is too widely embedded in Indonesia's society and recent history. Anyway, I would not recommend showing these films to students - the frank discussion of the acts committed by these men is too disturbing. I would, however, recommend them to any teacher looking to teach Indonesia for the National Study in Modern History.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - National Study: Indonesia (Teacher)

Bridge of Spies (directed by Steven Spielberg, USA, 2015)

There have been lots of films made about the Cold War but most of these were made during the Cold War itself. As such they often fall into the category of spy-fantasies that existed as a pressure valve for the anxieties of the time. In this film, Spielberg gives the Cold War the same grand treatment he gave WWI, WWII and 19th century America in some of his earlier 'serious' films. It struck me while watching Bridge of Spies just how perfectly tailor-made this film was as an entry-point for younger generations with no experience of this unique and protracted conflict. Spielberg crams in as many aspects of the 'war' as possible to create a highly visual narrative, finding success in illuminating a difficult slice of history that often resists direct engagement. 

Would work well for:

• History 7-10 - Stage 5 School-Developed Topic: The Cold War (Teacher, Students)
  
• Year 12 Modern History - Peace and Conflict: The Cold War (Teacher, Students)

 

The Woman King (directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood, USA, 2022)

Contrary to the wave of Americentric online trolls who sought to challenge The Woman King's value, the historical accuracy of this film holds up just as much as most of the other entries on this list. It only takes minimal online searching to find some reliable discussions of how this films deals with an under-represented area of history and, as such, The Woman King will remain highly useful as an educational resource until further directors and writers begin to visit early modern African history from an African perspective. Some elements might push the boundaries of what can be shown in a classroom (it's rated M in Australia but screening it will always be a matter of context and school discretion) but, this said, I think some excerpts could still be used and teachers looking to broaden their personal understanding will find it useful too.

Would work well for:

• Year 11 Modern History - The Construction of Modern Histories (Teacher)
• Year 11 Modern History - Case Study: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (Teacher)
• Year 11 Modern History - The Shaping of the Modern World: The Age of Imperialism (Teacher)
  

Using Schemas with Related Texts

The drive for senior NSW students to locate and select their own related texts has diminished somewhat since the days of Belonging and Discovery. The 2019 syllabus de-emphasised it across the entire Standard and Advanced curriculum, relegating it as a single Common Module element that doesn't require external assessment (meaning there is no requirement for students to recall their related text in the HSC exam... make of that what you will!) 

All that said, Extension English 1 still requires students to find some related texts for their elective module. In total, the elective module involves the study of three prescribed texts (selected from a pool of six) and two related texts - with students expected to (most likely) draw upon their knowledge of two prescribed and one related text for the HSC question. 

In a 1 hour exam context, it's quite a feat to be able to tie together that many texts and tailor a response to a previously unseen essay question.

I found myself grappling with this challenge when I first picked up an Extension class a few years ago, thinking to myself: 

How does one prepare Year 12 students to be adaptable while managing sophisticated and interlocking knowledge of that many texts?

A schema works. This is a way to guide students in pulling out specific textual examples from their texts. The examples are collected in connection to the module descriptor, which can be a highly effective way to organise thinking if the student is made to do it over and over again with in the following ways:

1. Use the schema with multiple texts at the same time in a single lesson
   
2. Use the schema with the same texts at different times throughout the year
   

My schema was developed for the Literary Homelands elective but versions could be easily made for any of the other electives. I was heavily influenced by Paul Kiem's excellent video on the Question 1 segment of the History Extension exam. I recommend watching it even if you have no connection at all to the teaching of History as it's a really valuable approach to teaching adaptable critical thinking and the synthesis of ideas at a more academic level. 

Download schema here.

Once students have used the schema a bunch of times they can then try out some paragraph or essay responses. I start them out with the instruction to come up with a thesis in response to the question (a whole other exercise) and then to tie this thesis to one of the themes in the schema. The notes the student has made on each of their texts (both prescribed and related) in relation to this specific theme can then be pulled from each schema to construct a single thematically-driven essay paragraph that ties together two, three or even four texts. 

It's not the only way to do things but my students found it helpful so maybe yours will too :)

Researching for History Curriculum

Thanks Penrith Library!

I thought I'd share with you today one of my current methods for researching and writing History curriculum. There's no single way to program, of course, but I do know that if someone had outlined a few methodologies to me back in my university days then it might have made things a little easier. I've experimented with various ways of writing programs for teaching and I guess that 2020-21 was the moment where I finally became happy with an approach to researching for the subject of History. So I thought I'd share it!

There were a few contributing factors that helped me arrive at the method I now use... 

• In 2019 I was commissioned to write some chapters for the Cambridge History Transformed series. In order to feel comfortable in providing a baseline from which other teachers could work, I knew that I would have to undertake a considerable amount of research.
• At my new school I was placed onto Ancient History, a subject I hadn't taught for at least 9 years. For all intents and purposes I'm basically teaching it for the first time so I needed to refresh my approach.  
• I fortuitously attended some online PL conducted by the History Teachers' Association of NSW. This 'Introduction to Ancient History' module was run by Dennis Mootz, who highlighted the use of Excel Spreadsheets as a powerful aggregation tool for historians to use. 

My approach isn't revolutionary but I'm finding it increasingly useful and it's something I'll be teaching a variation of to my students for the upcoming Historical Investigation component of Ancient History. I'll also teach it when I next have a History Extension class. 

Step 1: Look at the syllabus. 

I start by reading through the part of the syllabus I'll be teaching. In this case, for example, it's the introductory Nature of Ancient History topic 'The Treatment and Display of Human Remains'. 

Then I code the content dot points within the syllabus for my own reference, using the following schema: 

• 1 = The Nature of Ancient History as it's the first module in the Preliminary course. 
• 6 = The Treatment and Display of Human Remains as it's the 6th topic within the module. 
• The four main dot points within this topic are then labelled A, B, C, D.
• Any sub-dot points within these are labelled with a further number, EG. 1, 2, 3, 4. 

Here is what it looks like after I code it...

Students investigate:

• The condition of the human remains and how they were preserved, discovered and/or removed from where they were found 1-6-A
• The methods and results of scientific analysis (dating of finds and forensic techniques) and modern preservation of the remains 1-6-B
• The significance of the human remains and other sources, for examples written, for an understanding of the life and times in which they lived, including: 1-6-C
• The social status of individuals 1-6-C1
• The beliefs and practices of the society 1-6-C2
• The health of ancient populations 1-6-C3
• The nature of the environment 1-6-C4
• The ethical issues relevant to the treatment, display and ownership of the remains, for example the use of invasive methods of scientific analysis 1-6-D

Step 2: Read.

I recently read a tweet where the poet Eileen Chong made reference to a creative process figuratively labelled as 'wool-gathering'. This refers to the necessary time that writers need to spend on reading, gathering up the intellectual resources that will allow for creation. In preparing to teach an area of history I will gather together any available resources I can find, place them in a stack on my table, and start reading. 

Step 3: Raw notetaking. 

I find that, without focus, examining history can become quite overwhelming. Reading one thing will lead to another and I'll be fascinated by the minutiae of particular events only to realise (when it's too late) that it has no relevance to what I need to teach. This is where the above coding from Step 1 comes into play.

Using an excel spreadsheet, I will keep one eye on the syllabus content points and make notes on what I'm reading. Each separate entry is coded with one of the 8 codes from the above syllabus. This is what it looks like:

Click to enlarge.

The columns are as follows:

• Information: My notes from the source in question. This can be a summary, or a quote, or a suggestion.
• Key Word: In something like this topic it's useful to be able to separate the entries geographically as the plan is to examine significant bodies from different parts of the world (EG. Bog Bodies from Europe, Mungo Man from Australia, etc.).
• Reference: This lets me know the source I've used. I keep another tab in the Excel spreadsheet running to collect together my sources as a proper bibliography. 
• Page Number: So I can follow up in case I come back to the entry and realise I need more context, or need to check if I've quoted something correctly. After all, I don't want Keith Windschuttle to come after me (that's a joke for the History Extension teachers).
• Syllabus: The coding from Step 1. This becomes most important in the next step.
• Format: The type of source it's from. This can help me evaluate how I plan to use the information.
• Category: A categorising column additional to the Key Word column can be useful when it comes to sorting the document afterwards, in case there are different ways of ordering the information (EG. By culture/body rather than by geography).

Step 4: Sort.

The final step before I start programming my unit (in other words, planning out my sequence of lessons and populating it with resources) is to take all the raw information and make some sense out of it. This is a simple but powerful step where the spreadsheet is re-sorted by using the coding. All the entries are then reorganised in order of the syllabus, allowing me to work through it methodically. 

I then move onto creating my unit of work. Recently, for example, while creating a unit for the Boudicca Case Study, I've been able to refer back to all my entries on Boudicca's representation through history and use this to create a lesson focused on just this one aspect of the syllabus. It's been incredibly useful. 

And that's it. I have other ways of using the spreadsheet but I think this will do for today :)

What is History?

Australian War Memorial

In the same vein as the blog I put together on Dr Philip SA Cummins' lecture for the HTA HSC Senior Study Day, here are my notes from Dr Paul Kiem's session on approaching the What is History? section of the Extension History syllabus, also from the same day.

Dr Kiem puts an emphasis on students adopting an 'overview understanding' of history, something that essentially encompasses the following areas:

• Prehistory/oral tradition
• The emergence of the organised narrative via early historians (Herodotus, Thucydides, Bede).
• The Enlightenment and the birth of rationality (Gibbon)
• Academia and the question of whether history can seen as a science (Ranke)
• The crises of WWI and WWII and how this led to postmodernism in historical thought (Carr, Jenkins, Evans)
• A broader view of history that engages with the discipline's continuing development

Dr Kiem has a relatable and easy-to-follow method for approaching Question 1 of the Extension History HSC, in which students are encouraged to look at the debates and themes of historiography as 'building blocks', and this is demonstrated in a great resource here, on Youtube:

A student's success in Question 1 is directly related to their ability to call into play various arguments that historians have battled it out over in the past or continue to contest today. Better yet, a great Extension History student will be able to draw comparisons between the same arguments made in two different eras in order to show a sense of perspective and (hopefully) their own personal position in relation to said arguments.

Some examples of the big ideas historians have debated:

• What impact has postmodernism had on history?
• What does Australian history tell us about history?
• Can there be a universal history that applies to everyone?
• Is history a science or a form of literature?
• Is history possible or desirable? That is, can we ever truthfully represent the past?
• To what extent is history a reflection of today's politics?
• Will Hollywood take over if historians abandon the field? And, if so, what would be the impact of this?
• To what extent do the stories need to be told by those who see the difference between the past, the memory and history?
• What is the influence of metanarratives (such as national identities) on history?
• Who should take precedence in the academic vs. public history debate on the different purposes of history?
• Who does history belong to? The academics or the public? Or the government? Amateurs? 
• What role does the digital revolution play? Think: source preservation, 'culture of abundance', digitisation as a tool for the democratisation of history, history becoming more dynamic and collaborative, archives also moving our understanding beyond narrative histories. 

Dr Kiem also highlights the importance of students demonstrating an understanding of history now. Things like the commemoration of ANZAC and the national ongoing debates in Australia over its purpose, value, and contestability. Remember Scott McIntyre? (follow this link for his controversial tweets about ANZAC Day).

Or what about the digital revolution and the how this is impacting on the way history is written now? Check out this recent story about an American high school student using the internet to prove a History professor wrong (follow this link).

And what of the future of history? There's the Big History project, which combines hard science with history to tell a narrative that emphases the prevalence of patterns rather than people in the ebbs and flows of historical change. And there's Francis Fukuyama, who posits a new concept of history in light of the way the end of the Cold War threw our idea of everything into doubt.

The possibilities are endless. Students need to look at a range of these debates and familiarise themselves with the ones that they understand best, and be able to use these historical arguments in relation to a range of questions.

Post-Post-Modernism

Dr Philip SA Cummins, author of Clio's Scroll, gave a great talk about post-modernism at this year's HTA Senior History HSC Study Day, essentially encapsulating the What is History? module of the Extension Course within his own philosophy in the space of just an hour.

The title of the session 'Post-post-modernism' sounds intimidating but - mercifully - the lecture was only partially focused on this, and instead students were given an overview of historiography in the broader sense. Dr Cummins made it clear from the outset that Extension History is less about 'doing' history and more about being an historian - which is to say that, as Extension History teachers, we require fresh thinking from our students about history.

One of the big questions that often comes up with Extension History is; Is there such a thing as absolute truth? The historian EH Carr summarised history as being about things that happened in the past, and our attempts to record those events. It's a process rather than an absolute truth. We can work towards this truth, but getting there is perhaps irrelevant due to its impossibility.

Dr Cummins goes a little further in specifying that historians more or less ask questions about three things:

1. Agency - how things happen and who does them?
2. Causation - why things happen and to what effect?
3. Relative merit (significance) - how important are things in determining agency and causation?

And in order to get there, historians explore the following:

• Can we escape our contexts?
• Can we capture the past accurately?
• Can we express an individual truth or interpretation?
• Can we find ourselves in the past?
• Can we exist free of our past and present?
• Can we express our own views?
• Can we impose an individual mark on history?
• Can we discover our heroes in the past?
• Can our heroes help us to be heroes?
• Can we be heroes ourselves?
• Can we capture the truth about past events?
• Can we determine any meaning from these events?
• Can we tell the story of the past in order to communicate this meaning?  

So using this as his jumping-off point, Dr Cummins segmented his story of history into four broad areas, and I've used his lecture and framework to discuss his ideas in my own words below (mainly for my own Extension History students - hi guys!).

1. The Enlightenment - the Empirical and Liberal traditions

The Enlightenment period began in the latter half of the 18th Century. In most understandings of the term, it's considered to be a Western/European tradition (although there are dissenting voices who make strong arguments for the emergence of the Enlightenment in other parts of the world, such as Japan) and for the intents and purposes of high school Extension History it's best to consider it in tandem with all the Eurocentric -isms that we tackle in Modern History. Meaning that the Enlightenment is easiest understood within the context of the rise of the West as the pre-eminent power of the modern world - emerging alongside (or just prior to) industrialisation, liberalism, nationalism, Eurocentrism, and imperialism.  

In terms of History, the Enlightenment prompted the 'celebration, categorisation and recording of orthodoxies'. It was a movement of intellectuals who came to prominence in the context of the same environment that produced the French Revolution; challenging the old feudal Church-run order in which information remained clandestine and elitist, and bringing education to the masses by applying structures to knowledge in previously-unparalleled detail. As part of this vanguard, historians such as Edward Gibbon brought to bear a more rigorous kind of inquiry to retell the past in narrative form for everyday people.

This is what is known as the empirical tradition - a primary source-based approach that dominates historical method from the 18th Century onwards. History was seen a truthful depiction of the past, and this led to the famous 19th Century historian Leopold Von Ranke and his assertion that history is a science - one in which the historian utilises a scientific methodology to locate and use primary sources to tell history 'as it essentially was'. That is, Ranke believed that it was entirely possible to present history objectively.

French Revolution

During this time, empiricism became the 'gold standard' for historical work. Historians adopted Ranke's model and attitude in elevating primary sources to centre-stage and asking the following generic questions to bring the past to the present: What do primary sources say? What happened? When did it happen? How did it happen? Why was it done?

2. Modernism - the Relativist Challenge

The rise of modernism as an intellectual movement is sometimes misunderstood and misinterpreted as something that exists only in relation to what came after it; post-modernism. It is, nonetheless, worth examining on its own terms as a set of ideas that developed across the turn of the 20th Century within the framework of the Fin de siecle, a period characterised by the relative peace and optimism that prompted European growth between the 1890s and the breakout of war in 1914.

This was a time of social progression and celebration, and although WWI interrupted it in a rather brutal fashion, the revisionist and anti-traditionalist ideas that influenced the art and literature and historiography of the period continued unabated into the 1920s and 1930s. This can be seen in concepts as diverse as psychology, art deco, fascism and early feminism. There was a new focus on subjectivity (IE. The self). Intellectuals asked, what are the real structures of our society once we do away with notions of imperialism and Western superiority? If each person is a product of their social, economic and cultural upbringing, then how can an objective vision of the past be presented?

The relativists of the modern age, represented so memorably by the anti-empiricist journalist and historian EH Carr, said that the past only exists in one form or another because it's what we agree happened. What we know is relative, and is not the same as what someone else knows. Therefore, facts exists because we want them to exist. Facts are subjective because they have been selected by the historian.

EH Carr

We can see the edge of post-modernism here. For those of us with the hindsight of 21st Century historical thinking, it's not much of a leap of thought to say that facts are selected not just by historians but by those in power.

In his lecture, Dr Cummins presented this quote by Carr, "When we attempt to answer the question 'what is history?' our answer, consciously or unconsciously, reflects our own position in time, and forms part of our answer to the broader question of what view we take of the society in which we live". This drives home the idea that caused so many to break from Ranke's view of history as a science - history can only be understood in relation to ourselves.

Therefore, the modern relativist historians ask: Who is the author? What is the motive of the author? How reliable is the text? How do we relate to the text? How can we manage our understanding of the author's and our own biases to create a use for the text?

Dr Philip SA Cummins said that he uses this as an opportunity to remind history students that bias is not the 'bad' thing they've grown up thinking it is. In his words, and I paraphrase here, "Bias is good because it helps us identify the debates that fuel the approach to history an author has taken".

3. Post-modernism - Post-Structuralism, Deconstruction and the Voice of the 'Other'

Ah yes, post-modernism. To hyphenate or not to hyphenate? I'm going to drop the hyphen from this point on because, well, in the framework of postmodernism there's no right or wrong way to present it in terms of grammar.

See what I did there?

A goodly amount of students (and adults) become incredibly discombobulated at the mention of postmodernism and, I have to say, as much as I probably see myself as a postmodernist, it doesn't matter how many times I hear people define it - I always feel like it I would be quite happy to hear someone else talk about it. There's always more for me to learn about it. Or perhaps it's just that it's still yet to truly be defined, and never will be.

All that Extension History students need to know about postmodernism is that it was the wholesale rejection of truth and objectivity that followed the emergence of relativism. It is relativism taken to its extreme; an identification of the power relationships that gave birth to each version of history that we're presented with. And the recognition that history is always a version of events, and that there is no possibly truthful way to present the past.

Postmodernism exists as a criticism of the middle class/capitalist rule of the world, and as a celebration of 'the other' in the latter half of the 20th Century - the 'other' being those marginalised by the dichotomies of the Cold War, and those brought to the fore by the process of decolonisation that rapidly changed the political landscape of the undeveloped and developing worlds of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The postmodernist historian wants to deconstruct historical narratives to de-centre the powerful elites that these narratives reinforce. Postmodernist histories represent ethnic minorities, women, lower social classes, non-binary sexualities... all those who have been disadvantaged or discriminated against by the mainstream elements of Western society.  

Under this model, history is therefore seen as a political text, and a discourse of social construction and personal perspective, in response to which we should ask: cui bono, which translates as: for whose benefit was the text prepared? History is no longer a search for truth, it's a dismantling of lies. The postmodernist historian should therefore also ask: How does this deconstruction help us to understand the relationship of the historical text to the power structures that created and authorised it? To what extend are we bound to accept the perspective of the author? Is there a better way f looking at the past? Have we made sure that we have noticed the 'other'?

So if postmodernism makes it impossible for us to ascertain the truth of the past then what's the point of it? Well, Dr Cummins joyfully asserted that, whilst he is the first to concede that postmodernism is hard to read, it is still incredibly valuable as a tool within the context of analysing history and its historians. Things that Dr Cummins wants us to consider in regards to why postmodernism should be important to us:

• We can recognise the influence of "narrative, metanarrative and myth" - people want to write stories and usually these conform to conventional story structures and cultural icons, myths and legends.
• We can understand that these stories are often if not always framed around ideas and structures of power.
• We can acknowledge that histories are written for someone's benefit, and that this is usually the person who authorised and supported the production of the history, as opposed to the 'other'.
• We can recognise that a historian's method and training can inherently privilege one or more perspectives from within the cycle of these power relations.
• We can use tools of analysis to deconstruct the work of other historians, and;
• We are reminded of the voice of the 'other'.  

Jacob de Wit's 1754 painting depicts a naked Truth keeping a watchful eye over those who write history.

A way to separate these three approaches to history is to think of them in these terms:

1. Empirical - there is a truth. Fact plus opinion will equal a history, and a definitive history is entirely possible. "History is the servant of the past".
2. Modernism - there is a struggle between truth and the bias of the historian. "History is the servant of the present".  
3. Postmodernism - there is no truth. Ever. "History is the servant of an idea".

4. Post-Post-Postmodernism

And that brings us to a contemporary perspective. What comes after postmodernism? The answer isn't a movement but an opportunity; the 21st Century presents the historian with an opportunity to remove old ideologies and political theories and instead map out and claim a genuine historical methodology that is integrated with other disciplines and concepts. There are still critical arguments about whether a historian can achieve authenticity or determine the truthful nature of things. Are there any absolutes? Where role does the post-Cold War, post-9/11 rise of fundamentalism play? Is relativism morally bankrupt? Can pluralism (political and cultural diversity) replace the 20th century Eurocentric model of historical understanding?

Dr Cummins took the opportunity to highlight a whole range of debates and issues that have arisen in this new arena of "intense social and technological change":

• What is the impact of technology, social networking, complexty, ubiquity, globalisation, and supermodernity?
• What of the supposed 'end' of history and triumph of the West vs. the rise of China, Islam and global decolonisation? 
• Neo-conservatism vs. the 'third' way? (A reference to the ongoing search for a more socialist vision that doesn't go down the path that communism went down in the 20th Century)
• And what of the seemingly inescapable victory of democratic power structures and improvements in living conditions vs. the entrenched inequities of wealth, capital and international corporate power?
• Or the history wars that play out ongoing battles between orthodoxy, revisionism and counter-revisionism? 
• How do we embed the voice of 'the other' within traditional history?

The questions that post-post-modernists find themselves asking are: Can we tell an authentic and valid story about the past?What philosophies of history should inform our perspectives? How can we free ourselves from thinking politically and imposing ideology on history?Are there patterns or are historical contexts unique? Can we represent the authentic voice of history? How do we do it whilst entertaining and holding today's audience's attention?

The lecture finishes with Dr Cummins sharing some philosophies of post-postmodernist historians. Here are two that I found interesting:

1. Bernard Bailyn says that historians are just trying to get as close to an accurate representation of the past as possible. The result is less important than the process.
2. John Lewis Gaddis says (and I really love this) that history is like drawing a map. The most accurate map is a 1:1 map, but we need to shrink it down to make it practical. History is like this too - we have to be careful about selecting the features of it while we 'shrink it down' so that it looks the same as what it was.

Dr Philip SA Cummins, founded of CIRCLE

Dr Philip SA Cummins' Recommended Reading List

Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft
EH Carr, What is History?
Richard J Evans, In Defence of History
Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History
John Lewis Gaddis, The Landscape of History
Berverly C Southgate, What is History For?
Barbara Tuchmann, Practicing History
John Vincent, An Intelligent Person's Guide to History
Karen Armstrong, A Short History of Myth
Mark Buchanan, Ubiquity
Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel
Ian Morris, Why the West Rules... For Now

Big History and Me

You'll have to bear with me if you're already familiar with all of this because, as six months ago (thanks to my introduction via Jonathon Dallimore), I have become quite tragically in love with the historiographical approach that has been endearingly dubbed 'Big History'. 

I read Maps of Time by David Christian and just as the Foreword promised (with some apparent degree of hyperbole), it blew my mind in sufficient manner. I'm not about to say, "Let's abandon all other historical approaches" but the whole idea of looking at history in the broadest possible context spoke to me. I guess it appealed to the part of me that resents the seemingly undefeatable presence of Eurocentrism that has sculpted the world's history 'canon'. Christian's view is one that combines scientific disciplines with philosophy and history to determine universal patterns that apply to both humanity and the growth of celestial objects.

At first, I found the idea of establishing similarities between the formation of stars and the formation of human civilisations a bit... tenuous and pointlessly esoteric. But I stuck with it! And after I read about these things in much more detail it all became more enlightening, and made me think of human history in a completely different way; which was the whole point.

As I read Maps of Time, which is Christian's bible for the 'Big History' approach to history, I made some notes.

These notes became hideously extensive.

Like, 47 A4 pages of notes.

When I was done, I knew that I couldn't just hand these notes over to my Extension History students. It was too long. I did, however, come to a much better understanding of the concepts by taking these notes, so I don't regret it. I'd do it again!

I thought I could still use these notes for this blog, so I'll be going to go through the concepts of the book in a few separate blogs in the future.

I'll leave you with this quote from one of the book's two appendices.

"Being complex creatures ourselves, we know from personal experience how hard it is climb the down escalator, to work against the universal slide into disorder, so we are inevitably fascinated by other entities that appear to do the same thing. Thus this theme - the achievement of order despite, and perhaps with the aid of, the second law of thermodynamics [entropy] - is woven through all parts of the story told here. The endless waltz of chaos and complexity provides one of this book's unifying ideas".

For more about Big History, go to the Big History Project online.

For more about 

The History Wars

History Wars! Sounds almost tautological, doesn't it? So much of our History syllabus is built around wars; World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Cold War... As Australians, our historical identity is constructed in relation to each of the 'great' wars of the 20th Century. One needs only look at ANZAC celebrations each year to see the near-religious fervour and respect that surrounds this aspect of Australian culture. 

The 'History Wars' themselves only have a tertiary relationship with war though, the term instead refers to the metaphorical battles fought by historians, journalists, and politicians over what the 'official' version of history should be for a nation. Many countries have their own versions of this debate. Japan continues to navigate a delicate relationship with their imperial past as the 'rapists' of Nanking, China. Quite recently, the U.S. senate intervened in plans for the Smithsonian museum to depict the less savoury aspects of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. And the less said about Turkey's foreign relations during the 19th century, the less likely you are to incite vehement argument from Greeks, Cypriots and Armenians.

A look at the Australian History Wars is often a great way to involve students in the contestability that forms so much of the crux of History Extension.

Our nation's history has been heavily contested over the last 30-40 years, and provides an excellent opportunity for Extension students to really grapple with the front-lines of historical discussion and argument. The debates that continue to fuel the History Wars are also demonstrative of the sort of debate we'd like to see students spearhead for their own History Extension Project.

Some examples of various aspects of the History Wars in Australia are:

• The political debates surrounding what content should be taught to students in Australian schools.
• Keith Windschuttle, and his footnote-debunking attacks on Left Wing historians (such as Lyndell Ryan).
• The ongoing arguments over whether the decline of Indigenous Australian culture and population constitutes genocide or not.
• The 'black armband' (Left Wing/Apologist) school of historians vs. the 'three cheers' (Right Wing/Traditionalist) school.
• Whether the 'Frontier Wars' between colonists and Indigenous Australians should be included in Australia's 'official' list of wars (and, by extension, whether the War Memorial should acknowledge these conflicts).
• The concept of 'Terra Nullius'.
• Were the Aboriginal people the first Australians?

Anyway, below you'll find an introductory powerpoint to go through with students. While you discuss each slide the students can fill in the graphic organiser with their thoughts and notes.

Resources:
The History Wars PPT

History Wars Graphic Organiser