History and Film

Before I was a teacher, and certainly before I had this blog, I did some work as a film reviewer for a now-defunct online blogging network. It mostly involved getting sent screeners for small-release films that no one cared about but in-between these obligations I still managed to watch and review over a thousand films of my own choice. 

My cinematic self-education is by no means complete, I still have quite a list of 'canon' films that I'm working my way through, but I do have a fairly confident awareness of what the history of cinema looks like. Here are some posts I've previously made about how the history of cinema can be utilised as a resource for the classroom:

• The Close-Up
• The 180 Degree Rule
• Early Editing
  

Today, however, I want to move away from looking at the history of cinema and look instead at how the medium of film is used to represent history itself. The previous blog posts are intended for use in an English or Film Studies classroom, whereas the following will be more relevant for the subject of History.

It's fair to say that the average History teacher has little curriculum-based used for a discussion on the history of cinema (a subject that focuses as much on storytelling techniques as it does on context) so this blog post will inevitably be focused on content and perspective instead. Here we will look at a few examples of history-focused films that I've specifically liked as a History teacher, and I'll highlight how they fit with our current secondary school History syllabuses in NSW. There are, of course, some things to be aware of:

• Some of these films are appropriate for students to watch.
• Some of these films are not appropriate for students to watch.
• Some of these films may be useful in other KLAs because the content connects to a relevant area of study.

Where a film fits in regard to the above will be up to a teacher's professional and informed judgment. The films that are not appropriate for students to watch have been included for a couple of reasons:

1. They are useful in broadening or deepening the teacher's understanding of a topic, and this in itself can be a powerful tool as it helps us look in particular directions with our lesson planning or research.
2. It may be negotiated to watch one of these films with some senior cohorts through the use of principal, head teacher, and parental permission. This can depend on classification and community context.
   
3. The teacher might select appropriate scenes for use rather than showing the entire film.

So, with all that out of the way, here are ten great History-based films that I think are useful:

Haxan (directed by Benjamin Christensen, Denmark, 1922)

Haxan is an unusual history of witchcraft that defies our modern view of what a documentary should look like. A 100 minute documentary in 7 parts, Haxan provides a narrative overview of witchcraft through the ages - presenting pagan rituals (with dramatised appearances from the Devil!) alongside more rational sequences that suggest medieval torture and mental illness explain why innocent people would have confessed to being witches in the face of superstition. As such, Haxan exists as a fascinating piece of historiography that charts changing beliefs while blurring the lines between reality and fantasy. The film itself perhaps demonstrates the conflicted beliefs of the 1920s in the way that it confidently places the rational and irrational side by side. The body of critical literature analysing Haxan is perhaps just as valuable as the film itself. 

Would work well for: 

• History 7-10 - Stage 4 Medieval Europe (Teacher)
  
• Year 12 History Extension - Witch Hunts and Witch Trials (Teacher, Students)

Battleship Potemkin (directed by Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union, 1925)

This innovative film (the infamous Odessa steps montage remains highly influential for many great directors) is an invaluable historical resource in the sense that it was made under the Soviet regime in its pre-Stalin days. Focusing on the Potemkin mutiny that formed part of the fabric of the 1905 Russian Revolution under Tsar Nicholas Romanov II, Eisenstein's meticulous drama reconstructs historical events in a fairly truthful manner despite its function as 1920s Soviet propaganda. From a teacher's point of view, the film works as either a way of examining developing rebellion against the Romanovs or as an exercise in looking at the film's use as propaganda (the textual history of Battleship Potemkin is just as historically fascinating as the film itself - pre-, during, and post-Stalin versions all serve to demonstrate the changing political landscape of Russia over time).

Would work well for:

• Year 11 Modern History - The Decline and Fall of the Romanovs (Teacher, Students)
• Year 12 Modern History - Russia and the Soviet Union (Teacher, Students)
  

Burn! (directed by Gillo Pontecorvo, Italy, 1969)

At first glance Burn! (or Quemada) might seem a murky choice owing to its generalised nature. Whilst its focus is on a fictional Caribbean island in the 19th century, the themes and main beats of Burn! are still very much in keeping with a common pattern of imperialism, colonialism, slavery, and commercial exploitation. Made at the height of the decolonisation period, the film also stands out (alongside Pontecorvo's more famous film The Battle of Algiers) as one of the more authentic cinematic depictions of modern historical forces. From a curriculum standpoint, it helps to visually illuminate the motivations behind European colonialism and the significance of imperialism and its impact on the modern world.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - The Shaping of the Modern World: The Age of Imperialism (Teacher)
  

Newsfront (directed by Phillip Noyce, Australia, 1978)

Newsfront is such a broad yet rich text for any History teacher. A classic of Australian cinema, it focuses on the era of 1948-1956, a period in which the advent of television was shaping the way in which news was collected and delivered. Noyce's script mixes archival footage with a wrap-around narrative to insert its newsreel cameramen characters into Australian history. If your knowledge of this period in our history is a little shaky, this film provides a relatively quick overview of the key events (the referendum to ban the Communist Party in Australia, Robert Menzies' big comeback as Prime Minister, postwar migration to Australia, and the arrival of television). For senior students, it provides a chance to examine the role of cinema in representing our history in a certain way.

Would work well for:

• History 7-10 - Stage 5 The Globalising World: Popular Culture (Teacher)
• History 7-10 - Stage 5 The Globalising World: Migration Experiences (Teacher)
• History 7-10 - Stage 5 School Developed Topic: The Cold War (Teacher) 
• Year 11 Modern History - The Representation and Commemoration of the Past (Teacher, Students)
• Year 11 Modern History - Case Study: Australia and the Rise of Communism (Teacher)
• Year 12 History Extension - An Australian Primer Minister: Robert Menzies (Teacher, Students)

Cry Freedom (directed by Richard Attenborough, United Kingdom, 1987)

A politically-charged depiction of Apartheid South Africa made while Apartheid was still happening. As a British film made in the 1980s, it's no surprise that Cry Freedom functions as a perfect example of the 'white saviour' narrative. It's a little disappointing that the focus shifts from Steve Biko around the halfway mark but, that said, it's a fairly accessible and engaging piece of cinema and the Biko half features a fantastic performance from a young Denzel Washington. If you're looking for something that your students will be able to easily follow (perhaps it might even make a few things clearer for them - some students benefit immensely from perceiving history through the lens of a cinematic narrative) then Cry Freedom will definitely do the job.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - Change in the Modern World: Apartheid in South Africa. (Teacher, Students)
  

Kundun (directed by Martin Scorsese, USA, 1997)

Scorsese's biopic of the Dalai Lama is a high quality production that goes some way towards realistically depicting the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1950 and the ideological/religious tensions surrounding it. I've personally used this one with a Modern History class but I did cut it down to about half its length so that we could focus on the sections relevant to our topic. Kundun as a film in its own right is probably a little too slow for the average teenager, however, the scenes in which the Dalai Lama meets with Chairman Mao are an essential window into the relations between Communist China and bordering territories. Scorsese's film is generally quite historically accurate - albeit quite toned down in terms of the violence that came alongside the Invasion of Tibet (no doubt owing to Hollywood's sensitivity to potential commercial markets in Asia). 

Would work well for:

• Year 11 Modern History - Case Study: Tibet in the Modern World. (Teacher, Students)
• Year 12 Modern History - Change in the Modern World: The Cultural Revolution to Tiananmen Square. (Teacher, Students)
  

Five Broken Cameras (directed by Emad Burnat and Guy Davidi, Palestine, 2011)

A story of non-violent resistance to the Israeli settlement of the last pockets of Palestinian territory, as recorded by Palestinian documentarian Emad Burnat on five cameras that got destroyed by Israelis one-by-one. In a topic that's so politically fraught and volatile, Burnat is able to provide an irrefutable record that helps to illuminate what's currently happening in Israel and the methods currently being used to eradicate Palestinians from their territory. In terms of the history syllabus, the parameters for the Arab-Israeli Conflict option might be 1948-1996 but the dot point that pertains to the rise and significance of the Israeli settler movement echoes through to the modern day. This documentary does an excellent job of bringing clarity to motivations, actions, and impacts of this movement that don't need to necessarily be tethered directly to any particular time period - the situation remains unresolved and this film still assists in coming to an understanding of the complexities involved.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - Peace and Conflict: The Arab-Israeli Conflict. (Teacher)
  

The Act of Killing and The Look of Silence (directed by Joshua Oppenheimer, joint international production, 2012 and 2014)

The Act of Killing is an astounding and unusual documentary in which the director asks surviving Indonesian death squad members to re-enact the murders they committed in the 1960s. The Look of Silence is an electrifying and intense companion piece in which the surviving relative of one of the victims confronts his brother's killer. These documentaries unpack and go some way toward explaining why the tragedy of Indonesia's recent history is unlikely to ever find a true sense of closure. When the government allowed and encouraged such widespread civil murder yet also distanced itself officially, thus making it a 'people's issue', what can be done? When thousands killed millions, and the resultant regime remains in power 50 years later, what can be done? It essentially means the killers have no problem speaking openly about the violence they wreaked upon so many because the issue is too widely embedded in Indonesia's society and recent history. Anyway, I would not recommend showing these films to students - the frank discussion of the acts committed by these men is too disturbing. I would, however, recommend them to any teacher looking to teach Indonesia for the National Study in Modern History.

Would work well for:

• Year 12 Modern History - National Study: Indonesia (Teacher)

Bridge of Spies (directed by Steven Spielberg, USA, 2015)

There have been lots of films made about the Cold War but most of these were made during the Cold War itself. As such they often fall into the category of spy-fantasies that existed as a pressure valve for the anxieties of the time. In this film, Spielberg gives the Cold War the same grand treatment he gave WWI, WWII and 19th century America in some of his earlier 'serious' films. It struck me while watching Bridge of Spies just how perfectly tailor-made this film was as an entry-point for younger generations with no experience of this unique and protracted conflict. Spielberg crams in as many aspects of the 'war' as possible to create a highly visual narrative, finding success in illuminating a difficult slice of history that often resists direct engagement. 

Would work well for:

• History 7-10 - Stage 5 School-Developed Topic: The Cold War (Teacher, Students)
  
• Year 12 Modern History - Peace and Conflict: The Cold War (Teacher, Students)

 

The Woman King (directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood, USA, 2022)

Contrary to the wave of Americentric online trolls who sought to challenge The Woman King's value, the historical accuracy of this film holds up just as much as most of the other entries on this list. It only takes minimal online searching to find some reliable discussions of how this films deals with an under-represented area of history and, as such, The Woman King will remain highly useful as an educational resource until further directors and writers begin to visit early modern African history from an African perspective. Some elements might push the boundaries of what can be shown in a classroom (it's rated M in Australia but screening it will always be a matter of context and school discretion) but, this said, I think some excerpts could still be used and teachers looking to broaden their personal understanding will find it useful too.

Would work well for:

• Year 11 Modern History - The Construction of Modern Histories (Teacher)
• Year 11 Modern History - Case Study: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (Teacher)
• Year 11 Modern History - The Shaping of the Modern World: The Age of Imperialism (Teacher)
  

Incorporating Drafting into Extended Response Assessment Tasks

With the advent of NESA's stipulations for HSC Assessment, in which students may only sit one formal examination per subject (including essays set in this fashion), there is now an increased need to senior students to practise the writing of extended responses in a meaningful fashion. Prior to the new rules, students might have written essays in assessable conditions anywhere up to 3 or 4 times across their final schooling year, but now this is no longer possible.

One way to get around this is to incorporate drafting into an assessable essay. This takes away the formalised examination context and - in the spirit of what NESA is hoping for - allows for a less stressful approach to essay writing in which students can engage with assessment as learning. 

There are two examples here for different subject areas, both of which were written for the older syllabus that ended this year. Regardless of your KLA, it's worth checking out both of them as they represent different approaches to the drafting process.

• Advanced English Example

• Modern History Example

Both tasks utilise an analytical marking criteria (as opposed to the holistic style rubrics used for HSC marking). It's a different way to mark than what we may be used to, however, it's imperative to use an analytical-styled criteria when undertaking assessment as learning as it allows the students to identify specific skills they can work on to consolidate strengths and address weaknesses. 

The holistic marking grid (in which student ability is represented in bands of grouped criteria) is specifically designed as the absolute end point of the learning process, IE. This style of criteria gets used for HSC marking because the students don't get to see how they're marked at this point. An analytical marking grid (in which specific skills are addressed with their own independent marks) is designed to offer meaningful feedback to the student, and this is often what a lot of Australian universities use for their humanities courses when demonstrating to students what criteria they need to address when submitting assignments.

Anyway! In terms of the resources attached above:

The Advanced English task requires students to submit a draft at some point before the final submission date. In terms of making their drafting visible to the marker, 5 of the 25 marks have been allocated to a reflection statement that they must attach to their final submission. 

The Modern History task strips back the differentiation of skills (it's only a 15 mark response) in order to take the pressure off students who are being asked to do multiple drafts. The drafting process is incorporated here as a non-mandatory due date, which works as thus:

• Students submit a draft about one week before the final due date. Students can't be penalised if they don't submit at this time - it isn't mandatory and it isn't the final due date.
• The teacher marks the drafts and gives them back to the students with feedback.
• Students have an option to re-submit on the final due date for re-marking. If they choose not to do this then they take the mark they've already been given instead.

Roughly half the students in this scenario re-submit a new draft for marking. The other half aren't interested in "doing the assessment task twice" and will take the mark they've been initially given. It turns out to be a remarkably efficient approach as you get to finalise marks for half the students before the final due date.  

I'll write another blog down the track once I've had a chance to develop more assessments in response to the new syllabus.

Building the Field: China 1966-1989

Red Guards read from Mao's 'Little Red Book' during the Cultural Revolution

A key aspect of increased capacity for engaging with knowledge is better literacy. If we want to be able to express our thoughts on a specific subject then we need to be equipped with the vocabulary that will allow for full interaction with the topic at hand. In other words, in order to find the nuance in meaning that permits for increasingly sophisticated discussion of an idea the responder needs to have advanced literacy skills.

It's easy to think of grammar as commas, full stops, and capital letters, but grammar goes well beyond this in terms of structuring our understanding of language. Our command and understanding of grammar is a significant building block for our cognitive ability; it's our ability to organise information into a taxonomy of terms demonstrating relationships between words and concepts that increases the individual's capability for dealing with new concepts and content. 

Getting more specific, there are three extralinguistic features that contribute to our understanding of a context surrounding a new text when we read it. These are:

• Field: What is being talked about or written about (the content)
• Mode: The nature of the text and the role language plays within it (how the content is being delivered - spontaneously? planned? written? televised?).
• Tenor: The relationship between the speaker/listener or reader/writer (does the composer treat the reader as a novice, an equal or an expert? What kind of language is being used to achieve this?)

When we have students engaging with a previously unfamiliar area of knowledge, such as the new Modern History HSC syllabus China option for Change in the Modern World, the students will need to 'build the field'. Arriving at a point where students can communicate sophisticated historical ideas is dependent on their understanding of the history in question. They will need to build a specialised lexicon that includes all the new terms that they will be coming into contact with, and creating this new vocabulary bank will be the base from which they can draw upon when formulating their responses.

There are several ways that the field can be built. One tried-and-true way is a glossary, which I've included below, but reading new words and their definitions isn't a particularly effective way to learn something. The research tends to suggest that students will have a better time with new terms if they put them into practice immediately. This means that new words should be introduced gradually, with students trying them out in sentences of their own construction. 

Another effective method is giving the reader a piece of text that includes several unfamiliar terms and having them monitor the piece with the highlighter. Students locate and highlight the new terms and decode them one by one, with the teacher's assistance, in order to increase their knowledge of the context around the text.

Anyway, here's an overview of the vocabulary a student should become familiar with during the course of their study of Change in the Modern World, Option B. As mentioned, it's best to introduce these gradually and in context.

Anti-Revisionism: The maintenance of communist ideals in China. Those who sought to compromise Marxist ideology were accused of 'revisionism', and anti-revisionism referred to the need for Chinese communists to fight against this.

Bourgeoisie: The middle class. In Marxist theory, the 'bourgeoisie' are the capitalist class who seek to get rich off the labour of the workers. Marxists aimed to remove the bourgeoisie element from society.

Capitalism: A system of government, or society, in which the goal of the individual is to accumulate wealth for themselves. Trade is controlled by the private sector, rather than by the government.

Capitalist Roader: A synonym for 'revisionist'. Those in communist Chinese society seen as taking the easy 'capitalist road' were derogatorily labelled 'capitalist roaders'.

Cold War: The international tension (1947-1991) between the communist East (led by the Soviet Union) and the capitalist West (headed by the United States of America). Although communist, China did not fit neatly into the Soviet Union's side of the conflict as the two neighbouring Marxist countries had their own unresolved tensions during this time.

Counterrevolutionary: Internal enemies of the Chinese communist state were labelled as 'counterrevolutionary' as their actions were interpreted as running contrary to the spirit of the Chinese communist revolution.

This propaganda poster literally depicts Chairman Mao as the sun that lights all of China

Cult of Personality: This occurs when a person in a position of authority (such as Mao Zedong) creates a political atmosphere in which they are worshipped as a godlike figure by the general population. See any of the many artworks produced between 1950 and 1976 that depict Chairman Mao as a benevolent father-figure to the Chinese people (such as that above).

Cultural Revolution: A movement that occurred between 1966 and 1976, in which Mao Zedong encouraged students and workers to rise up and rid China of revisionist and counterrevolutionary elements.

Dazibao: Chinese for 'Big Character Poster'. These are large handwritten posters used to protest, communicate propaganda, and express ideas. These were popular during both the Cultural Revolution and in the late 1970s Democracy Movement.

De-Stalinisation: In 1956 the new Russian Chairman, Nikita Khrushchev, began a process of deconstructing the cult of personality that had surrounded the previous Chairman, Joseph Stalin.

Feudalism: A medieval form of government in which landowners controlled the state, with peasants or serfs working the land in exchange for being allowed to live on said land. Much of China was still a feudal state by the mid-20th century.

Four Olds: Mao Zedong ordered the Red Guards of the Cultural Revolution to destroy the 'four olds' so that China could be rebuilt anew. These were: old thought, old culture, old customs, old habits. This resulted in much of China's ancient heritage being destroyed to make way for a new and modern communist China.

Four Modernisations: A program launched by Zhou Enlai in 1975 to assist with China's progress towards increased industrialisation. These modernisations were: Agriculture, Industry, National Defense, and Science/Technology.

Fifth Modernisation: A dazibao in 1978 that called upon the Chinese Communist Party to add 'Democracy' as a fifth aspect of the Four Modernisations.

The Gang of Four were blamed for all the horrors of the Cultural Revolution

Gang of Four: A radical faction within the Chinese Communist Party headed by Jiang Qing (Mao Zedong's wife). The Gang of Four opposed efforts to modernise China as they saw it as the 'poisonous road to capitalist restoration'. After Mao's death, the Gang of Four attempted to seize power but instead found themselves denounced and arrested as enemies of the state. 

Gerontocracy: A government ruled by the elderly. Protestors against the Chinese government in the 1980s derogatorily labelled Deng Xiaoping and other senior members of the Chinese Communist Party as a 'gerontocracy'.

Glasnost: A policy promoted by the Soviet Chairman, Mikhail Gorbachev, in the 1980s. This policy loosely translates as 'openness' and was characterised by the loosening of strictness in communist Russian society. 

Industrialisation: Widespread development of modern industries in a country.

Leftism: Political views or policies of the 'left' (those who identify with communism, Marxism, and socialism).

Liberalisation: The process of allowing increased freedom in Chinese society. Many members of the Chinese Communist Party in the 1980s feared that liberalisation would interfere with socialist progress.

Liberalism: The idea of a society founded on freedom, particular in regards to equality, free trade, and freedom to pursue personal wealth.

Marxism: A political system based on the teachings of Karl Marx, the philosopher who invented the theory of communism.

Maoism / Mao Zedong Thought: Chairman Mao's own interpretation of Marxism could be found in his Little Red Book, and featured several key differences in comparison to the Soviet/Marxist version of communism. One main difference was that Maoism focused on role of the peasants in the maintenance of a communist society.

Modernisation: The process in which countries develop from a traditional or feudal state into something industrialised and up-to-date.

People's Liberation Army: The Chinese army, who assisted Mao in winning the Civil War that led to the creation of communist China in 1949.

Perestroika: Translates as 'restructuring'. Perestroika were the reforms that the Soviet Union underwent in the 1980s before transitioning away from communism.

Permanent Revolution: The idea that communist revolution was an ongoing struggle between the social classes, and would continue until the entire world had become communist. Also links to the idea that Marxist societies, such as China, had to continue revisiting Marxist ideals in order to ensure that they stayed true to the spirit of communism.

Plenum: A political meeting in which all controlling members of the Chinese Communist Party had to be present.

Proletariat: The working / peasant class of a society.

Millions of Red Guards made the pilgrimage to Beijing to see Chairman Mao during the Cultural Revolution

Red Guards: The students encouraged by Chairman Mao to spearhead the Cultural Revolution were dubbed the 'Red Guards'. These students numbered in the millions and became fanatical devotees of Chairman Mao and his Little Red Book, vowing to fight those who wanted to bring capitalism to China. 

Rehabilitation: Enemies of the Cultural Revolution were sentenced to 'rehabilitation'. This often consisted of several years of forced labour that would teach capitalist roaders and revisionists how to be communist again.

Revisionism: Those who wanted to 'revise' communist society in China and allow increased freedom, or accumulation of personal power. These elements of Chinese society were criticised as 'revisionists'.

Rightist: Political views or policies of the 'right' (those who identify with nationalist and conservative ideologies).

Stalinism: The ideology of Marxism as practised by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. Stalinism was extremely totalitarian in its control of Russian society.

Struggle Session: Those identified as enemies of the Cultural Revolution was made to undertake 'struggle sessions', in which they had to denounce and criticise themselves for hours at a time so that they could start afresh as true communists. These sessions also meant humiliation and torture at the hands of the Red Guards and, sometimes, death.

Westernisation: The increased adoption of Western (American/European) and capitalist culture in China.

1984 and Context: Mix and Match

Once Stalin 'removed' a political enemy from Soviet society he then had all photographs of that person either destroyed or altered. The above image demonstrates the removal of a Soviet naval officer who disappeared during the 'Purges'. Orwell writes of similar phenomena in 1984.

A little while ago I posted a Preliminary HSC Advanced English resource for matching up the events of Animal Farm with examples from Soviet history; illustrating certain comparisons that show just how closely George Orwell modelled his animal characters and their farm on Russia circa 1917-1940. 

The HSC Advanced English Intertextual Perspectives module develops the analytical skills of Year 12 students further through a comparative study of Orwell's 1984 and Fritz Lang's Metropolis. In the case of 1984, totalitarian histories and culture (predominantly the Soviets and the Nazis) are reflected in the text almost as much, if not more, than they are in Animal Farm. 

The resource below collects together a series of events and elements from both 1984 and Nazi/Soviet history that could be said to correspond with one another. Students read through both columns and match up the aspects of history that fit with Orwell's dystopian classic, building up their contextual knowledge to support a more holistic understanding of the concepts that Orwell was writing about.

1984 and 20th Century Totalitarian states - Mix and Match Activity 

Here are the answers for teacher-reference:

A.  The Nazis used the euphemisms 'special treatment' or 'special lodging' to refer to those they had identified in camps for executions matches with The 'Ministry of Love' is where political enemies go to be tortured and executed. It's name, along with other government departments, is euphemistic and ironic.

B. Leon Trotsky was a Jewish-Ukrainian intellectual with a pointed goatee. He fled the Soviet Union after becoming Stalin's enemy. Stalin 'purged' millions of Russians for allegedly being Trotskyists (followers of Trotsky) matches with The number 1 enemy of the state is Emmanuel Goldstein, a 'goat-like' intellectual with a Jewish name who had fled overseas. His followers are said to be secretly working to bring the State down from within.

C. The working class is known as the 'proletariat' in Marxist theory. Due to Russia's vast area, many peasants in more remote areas are able to live with a larger degree of freedom matches with The working class are referred to as the 'proles', and are given a larger degree of freedom than Party members due to their perceived lack of civilisation.

D. The Cold War saw the nations of the world divided into three major blocks - the West Bloc (USA and its allies), the East Bloc (the Communists), and the Third World (undeveloped countries). The 'war' between the two bigger sides was never straightforward and involved complicated alliances that led to smaller wars (EG. The Korean War) matches with The nations of the world are arranged into three major groups and locked in a perpetual state of stalemate against one another, with their alliances constantly changing.

E. Nazi children in WWII were encouraged to join the 'Hitler Youth'. In the Soviet Union, children were encouraged to be loyal to the State rather than their families matches with Children are encouraged to join the Spies (a youth group) and the Anti-Sex League, where they are brainwashed and indoctrinated into obeying the State.

F. The Soviet Union and other communist East European countries frequently experienced shortages and electricity failures matches with The nation is in a constant state of disarray and inconvenience - Winston notes at the novel's beginning that the electricity rarely works.

G. Propaganda for the Soviet Five Year Plans featured the slogan "2+2=5" to represent Stalin's wish to complete the five year plan in just four years matches with As a symbol of his brainwashing, Winston is made to believe than 2 + 2 = 5.

H. The Bolshevik Party, who came to rule the Soviet Union and outlawed all political parties, were usually referred to only as the Party matches with Winston's country is ruled by a government known only as the Party.

I. Many Russian political prisoners were sent to the Gulags; harsh labour camps in remote areas matches with Reference is made to 'forced labour' camps where political prisoners are sent to work as slaves for many years.

J. The Soviet Union regularly invented statistics to demonstrate the rate of progress to Russians matches with Announcements are made regularly to remind citizens of the progress the Party has made, EG. Standard of living has improved by 20% in the last year.

K. Stalin tried to speed up industrialisation of Russia with several 'Five Year Plans' matches with The Party drives the economy with a 'Three Year Plan'.

M. The Soviet union started with the success of the 1917 Revolution and its anniversary was celebrated every ten years after matches with The 'Revolution' is alluded to as the most important event in the Party's history.

N. Britain had a history of ruling/subjugating India as a colony matches with Reference is made to a war front in Malabar, India.

O. Stalin's 'Purges' involved the arrest of many everyday people, most of whom were never seen again, and had their names wiped from all records matches with Winston describes the night-time abduction of people who would 'simply disappear' and never be referred to again.

P. Soviet workers were encouraged through propaganda to follow the example of Stakhanov, the 'perfect' Soviet worker matches with The Party invents a fake Party member, Comrade Ogilvy, to be used as a hero in propaganda.

Q. Those abducted in the Purges were made to publicly confess to their alleged crimes, even if they did not commit said crimes matches with After his capture and interrogation, Winston is broken and made to believe in the Party once again. He is allowed to re-enter society but will be executed at some point in the future.

R. The Communist Party in Russia was ruled by a Central Committee who enjoyed many luxuries. The other Party members numbered in the millions and helped to runt he Soviet Union matches with There is an Inner Party (where the ruling members enjoy many luxuries) and an Outer Party (the bureaucracy).

S. Stalin's likeness could be found everywhere in the Soviet Union during his reign - in every house and in every city - as pictures, posters, and statues matches with Posters of Big Brother are everywhere, accompanied with the phrase 'Big Brother is Watching You'.

Laying a Foundation: Context and 1984

Image from the film version of 1984

I'm about to teach the Intertextual Perspectives 1984 and Metropolis comparative study for HSC Advanced English, and boy am I excited. Studying 1984 could not have come at a more relevant time... okay, maybe that's a bit hyperbolic, the time in which 1984 was written was probably the most relevant time for it to be read, but my point is that Trump's gobsmacking rise to Presidency in the United States of America has suddenly rendered George Orwell's 1984 a lot more pertinent.  

In just the last week alone, the words 'Orwellian' and '1984' have permeated a near-unprecedented number of news articles and think-pieces, and all in connection to President Donald Trump. 

Here's a quick selection courtesy of a Google search:

2017 isn't '1984' - its a lot stranger than Orwell imagined - The Conversation

Sales of '1984' spike after Kellyanne Conway's 'alternative facts' - Sydney Morning Herald

Orwell's '1984' and Trump's America - The New Yorker

Amazon's Bestseller list takes a dystopian turn in Trump era - CNN

13 Quotes From '1984' That Are Horrifyingly Relevant in 2017 - Bustle

George Orwell's '1984' is a best-seller again. Here's why it resonates now... - PBS

I said to some of my students a few days ago that we're really lucky to have this happening right now because it links really well with what we're learning this term (dystopia, totalitarianism, power and control, etc.) Of course, America and the world in general is a lot less lucky than my classroom because Trump is now one of the most politically powerful figures on Earth. But, you know - small wins. 

My mentor and close friend Kira Bryant once told me that Advanced English hinged on context (I think her exact words were "Context, context context!") Thinking critically about where a text is coming from, the reasons why it was made, how the author intended for it to resonate with audiences, and how it actually resonates with audiences are all things that rely on a strong understanding of context. This is one of the reasons why Modern History and Advanced English are probably so beneficial to one another when students undertake both subjects. Modern History provides a lot of ideological background for texts studied in Advanced.

With 1984 there is a lot to wade through in terms of covering the values, attitudes and events that have influenced Orwell's magnum opus. I've seen various resources that cover everything from Italian fascism to emerging Cold War surveillance technology. All relevant, but all also reflective of each resource-designer's personal context. As teachers we suffer from selection-bias, just like everyone else, and what we choose is reflective of ourselves and not the population as a whole. This isn't a bad thing; our professional qualifications and ongoing professional learning put us in relatively good stead to be imparting knowledge of this kind. Selection-bias does however bear keeping in mind as an explanation for why no two teachers approach the teaching of context in the same way, especially in a subject like English. In short, there's no definitive way to approach this.

The way I prefer to look at Orwell's context for 1984 is as thus:

• Totalitarianism: Looking at this as a form of government with a particular focus on conformity, lack of freedom, and the concept of a one-party state. Students should first engage with this ideology from a relatively objective standpoint - evaluating the benefits and disadvantages of this form of governance before developing their own opinion. 
• Fascism: The terms 'fascism' and 'totalitarianism' aren't mutually exclusive despite being closely linked. It's worth mentioning that the two most famous totalitarians, Stalin and Hitler, occupied horizontal extremes on the political spectrum (with Stalin representing the extreme left, while Hitler was the ultimate in right wing politics). Defining fascism can be a bit challenging as it's a lot more nebulous than socialism, and this is partially due to the fact that it lacks a unifying manifesto like Karl Marx's theory of communism. Most simply put, fascism is both authoritarian and extremely nationalistic (whereas socialism in its purest form rejects the concept of nationhood). 
• Methods of Enforcing Totalitarianism: This is where a little case study of Stalin and Hitler (and maybe, depending on the enthusiasm level of your class, Franco and Mussolini) can come in handy. The 'personality cult' surrounding the leaders of totalitarian regimes is particularly relevant here as it links closely to the way Orwell constructs the figure of 'Big Brother'. Something else to consider is the way that Stalin used propaganda to manipulate the public's perception of Soviet history.
• The Cold War: The way that Eastasia, Oceania and Eurasia relate to each other throughout 1984 is deliberately reminiscent (and remarkably prescient) of the power blocs that emerged during the Cold War. It's no coincidence that the CIA formed just after WWII; this came about in response to the thinly-veiled antagonism that was bubbling away between the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. In terms of 1984, the Cold War's relevance is made clear with references to atomic war and the technological advances brought about by the rise of espionage - things like CCTV, the drug LSD, voice recognition systems, lie detectors, etc.
• George Orwell: Finally, it's worth looking at the context of Orwell himself. A lot of 1984 was fueled by his experiences in the Spanish Civil War, as a military policeman in the British colony of Burma, his time living as a homeless person, and even his personal health. Many allege that writing 1984 was so taxing for the chronically ill Orwell that it actually killed him, and it's not difficult to see Orwell's poor health (driven by smoking and tuberculosis) in the sickly nature of 1984's protagonist, Winston. 

Resource

Context - here is a reading/summary sheet on the wider context of the novel. I'll upload a more specific one that links Soviet history to plot points in 1984 in the next week or so. 

Stalin's Purges: Making Connections

French Cartoon from the 1930s, caption reads: "Visit the Pyramid of Russia"

Teaching the National Study in HSC Modern History, no matter which option it is, can be a daunting task. In my mind this is predominantly due to the sheer endlessness of historical thinking. In other words, the more I look into something the more there is to see. You could read about Soviet Russia forever, delving into records of the past to construct a simulacrum of increasing depth. The past itself, however, can never be brought back to life. All we can do is try to replicate an impression of it using the available details. 

I don't know about you but I find that hard.

When I'm programming for History I'm always grateful for the information provided in the syllabus but, even with this seemingly finite guide, I'll start mining sources and won't know when to stop. And that's because there is no 'when' to stop - this is history we're talking about. It's not possible to collect all the information because we can't go there and see it for ourselves. We can't ever get to a point and say, "Well, that's it. I've finished finding all the facts". The facts are legion, and I haven't even mentioned the impact of postmodernism.

So what's the lesson here?

Do I try to teach my students everything? How can I when it's not possible due to the nature of history itself?

Do I just give students a list of facts and get them to research everything? Well, that doesn't work for every student.

I don't have the answer. At least, not definitively. What I do know is that my teaching and learning cycle allows me to continue refining what I've taught. In the case of teaching the Russia and the Soviet Union study multiple times I've been able to observe how different sets of students react with different sorts of material and task requirements. Despite what some might say, this teaching lark is not a science. Getting a unit together and teaching it to one class will not be the same as teaching that very same unit to a second class. The conditions can not be replicated because every individual is unique, and every combination of individuals produces a unique class room. We can refine our materials in these conditions over and over again, getting closer and closer to something that really works quite well, but perfection just won't ever be achieved. It's impossible. 

There are other problems to consider too; Modern History isn't Advanced English, it's a subject that attracts students with a range of abilities. A while back there was a course called Modern History (People and Events) which offered more scope for differentiated learning across the Senior History curriculum; from what I can gather it was to Modern History as English Studies is to Standard English. This course was phased out, meaning that any Modern History class can now have students with particular literacy needs not necessarily primed for essay writing and higher order source analysis.

My point is that in tackling something as challenging to study as Stalin's Soviet Russia we need to find 'ways in' for a diverse range of students. Ways that don't come across as too prescriptive or finite whilst also allowing students to come up with their own clear answers. It's deceptively difficult to straddle the balance between these things.

The resource I've included here deals with the Purges enacted by Stalin between 1934 and the outbreak of WWII. I wanted something that provides a seemingly simple overview but also forced all of my students to move beyond rote learning.

• The PPT gives an overview of the Purges, with each slide containing an image. The teacher takes the students through the slides while the students work through a separate resource, a document broken into a box per slide. 
• Each slide contains the image from the slide but rather than simply getting the students to copy or summarise information from the PowerPoint, the goal is that the students make connections between each image and the information from the slide. 
• By synthesising a more personal response in this fashion, students are drawing a cause and effect relationship between visual materials and the history that produced them.

Resources:
The Purges - PowerPoint Presentation
The Purges - Student sheet

Reading Roll: April-June 2016

Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar by Simon Sebag Montefiore

This highly engaging narrative of Stalin's Russia manages to turn one of the most complex periods of 20th Century history into a fascinating character study. Whilst it's a little hard to not get dizzy with all the names of Stalin's various hangers-on (a temporary job if ever there was one!), Sebag Montefiore grounds this volatile tale of power and war in Stalin's fascinatingly contradictory personality. The self-proclaimed 'man of steel' is presented here as both shrewdly intelligent and devastatingly paranoid; a man of pragmatism, selfishness, and bucolic savagery, and someone that historians still struggle to form a solid understanding of nearly a century after his rise to power. 

The Wasp Factory by Iain Banks

Iain Banks' debut novel has been on my 'to read' list for many years. I have to say that I enjoyed it a lot - if 'enjoy' is the right word to use to describe a book about a young man who spends his days on a Scottish island torturing animals, watching punk bands at the local pub, and reminiscing about the three children he once killed. Definitely a one-of-a-kind experience, with some truly odd character interplay, surprisingly poetic language, and a payoff that will twist your entire perception of the novel.

The Faceless Ghost by Lafcadio Hearn

Lafcadio Hearn's 19th century translations of traditional Japanese ghost stories have been given the graphic novel treatment in this short retelling of six or so macabre tales. Some of these selected stories are more 'ghostly' than others, however, Sean Michael Wilson has done very well to take these archetypal pieces of folklore and transfer them into an essentially visual form. Graphic novels don't usually pay high dividends to the kind of narration on which such stories are usually reliant, so I think some kudos are in order for Wilson and illustrator Michiru Morikawa finding success in grafting these narratives onto such an accessible mode of communication.

Einstein's Dreams by Alan Lightman

Lightman's unique novella was recommended to me by a friend from work, and I found it so different and enlightening that I was able to read it all in one go. Einstein's Dreams is a difficult book to categorise - I guess I would say it was science fiction, but that would probably give you the wrong idea. If I had to describe it I would say that, if we could firstly hypothesise that a multiverse of realities exist, it's a theoretical work that outlines the possibly infinite nature of time itself. That sounds like nonsense, doesn't it? It's not, I swear! Trust me, I just don't know how else to explain it.

Rat Queens (Volumes 1-3) by Kurtis J.

Another one that was recommended to me by a friend, Image Comics' Rat Queens is a satirical fantasy genre adventure that wins big points for exploring gender politics and feminism in a really fun way. I absolutely fell in love with Weibe's dialogue and characterisation, and while it's a shame that the aesthetic changes between graphic novels, it was a completely necessary shift since original artist Roc Upchurch was arrested on charges of domestic abuse (something that runs so contrary to the spirit of the text!)

Persepolis by Marjan Satrapi

Marjan Satrapi's modern classic is equal parts lived-in history and personal autobiography, and does a great job of making the ideas and events of Iran's Islamic Revolution accessible to foreigners like myself. Satrapi's voice rings true and loud as she describes her coming-of-age in tumultuous 1980s Iran and cosmopolitan France. A truly fantastic autobiographical graphic novel.

Kampung Boy by Lat

This autobiographical and irreverently cartoonish comic throws a nostalgic eye over life in 1960s rural Malaysia, tapping into universal themes of growing up, tradition vs. modernity, and the joys of childhood. There's something about the mischievous twinkle of Lat's breezy misadventures that encourages viewer identification; and although we might not be young Muslims growing up in the Malay jungle, it's still somehow something that feels wholly familiar! Kampung Boy is a hugely popular South-East Asian text and, even though I'm a few thousand kilometres away and in a completely different kind of society, I still found it easy to see why it has lasted the test of time.

Timeline by Peter Goes

In this picture book, Peter Goes creates these beautiful, vibrant double-page spreads of different eras of history. Each opening uses infographic-styled presentation to collect together a few interesting facts with a visual historical narrative. Admittedly, it's a little Eurocentric, but it's also very nice to look at.

By This You Shall Know Him by Jesse Jacobs

I've decided that I love Jesse Jacobs. His newest graphic novel, Safari Honeymoon, is a wonderfully bizarre man vs. nature story, and this earlier tome considers similar themes in depicting creation and origins of life. His style here is similar to the work he has done for Adventure Time, only much more strange and envelope-pushing - if such a thing can be! By This You Shall Know Him portrays the creation of life on Earth as a petty game of one-upmanship, playfulness, and greed staged by godlike-beings seeking the approval of a enigmatic super-entity. Oddly compelling! 

Paper Towns by John Green

I read Looking For Alaska last year and really enjoyed it, and while Paper Towns isn't quite as indie-zeitgeist-epic as Green's first book, it's still a really entertaining coming-of-age character study with its fair share of memorable moments. I also love the way that Green organically builds some genuinely interesting and esoteric areas of knowledge into his stories (in this case the 'paper towns' of the title) - hopefully imbuing and/or reinforcing a love of learning for a whole new generation of literati.

101 Answers for New Teachers by Annette Breaux

A fantastic and occupation-affirming book that definitely shouldn't just be read by new teachers. Breaux's pragmatic, proactive approach to teaching really spoke to me. I don't want that to come across as cheesy as it probably sounds, it's just that I read all of Breaux's hard-won anecdotes and found myself stopping over and over again to make notes, or think more in-depth about her ideas, or just take a break to reflect on how much I agreed with her. There are so many teachers out there, old and new, who would get so much out of this book. 

American Born Chinese by Gene Luen Yang

I picked up Gene Luen Yang's one-shot graphic novel thinking that it would be an amusing memoir of one boy's journey to adulthood as a cultural-hyphenate in '90s America. It would be disingenuous to say that this book is not this, but it's also so much more - concurrently telling three thematically-linked stories; the aforementioned coming-of-age teen drama, the traditional Chinese tale of the Monkey god (AKA Journey to the West), and a satirical sitcom-esque comedy about a grossly outdated stereotypical 'Chinaman' (the repugnantly named 'Chin-Kee') who visits his all-American cousin. Luen Yang deftly interweaves genres to touch on themes of identity and self-acceptance in moving fashion, whilst also simultaneously pushing the bar on exploration of racial stereotyping. The 'Chin Kee' section of the graphic novel is something that some people will find a little hard to read, even when you consider that it's coming from an authentically Chinese voice, but if you do decide to read this book then I recommend you stick with this section as the pay off is quite significant.

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie by Muriel Spark

Muriel Spark's early '60s novella is probably better known now (marginally) as the inspiration for the 1970s film for which Maggie Smith won her first Oscar. I'm a big fan of this film and find its subtext concerning elitism and fascism quite beguiling in its subversive audacity. The book is perhaps even more direct about this theme, so I appreciated it a lot. In a nutshell, the titular Miss Jean Brodie is a middle-aged English teacher at a conservative 1930s Scottish girls' school. She is infamous around the school for her tutelage of the 'Brodie set', a small group of girls hand-picked and groomed by Miss Brodie to basically be her own personal fanclub. It draws neat parallels between scholastic trends towards elitism and the rise of fascism in Italy, Spain and Germany prior to WWII, however, more daringly (and unfortunately still relevant today), it's the commentary that Spark passes on those who propagate educational elitism that sticks with the reader. It's this element that remains most indelibly memorable about this wonderful little piece of wit and satire. An underrated 20th Century classic.

Showa by Shigeru Mizuki

I'm about to teach the WWII Conflict Study Conflict in the Pacific for HSC Modern History for the second time and as part of my preliminary reading I decided to dive into Mizuki's famous graphic novel series on Japan's Showa period (1926-1989). So far I've only read the first volume (there are four) but, despite its length, it just about flew by as Mizuki retains reader engagement by alternating between vignettes on Japanese historical events and his own childhood as a cheeky rascal growing up in urban Japan. Mizuki also casts an unflinchingly critical eye over Japan's romance with militarism during this era, making this manga a must-read for any history buff looking for a valuable perspective on the rise of Tojo's fascist WWII regime.

Multiple Warheads by Brandon Graham

I found this on a 'best non-superhero graphic novels' list here. It turned out to be quite something else; a post-apocalyptic, anarchic, Mao-punk road trip through the ruined, alien-infested wastelands of futuristic northern Asia. It's hard to describe the plot of Graham's dystopian opus because so much of his creative energy is spent on other aspects of storytelling - world-building, esoteric visions of post-human existence, invented lexicons, tangential arthouse film-style characterisation, and staggeringly grand illustrations that test the reader's frame of reference. I digested this in little bits so that I didn't get too over- or underwhelmed, and by the time I finished I found myself wanting to read more of Brandon Graham's stuff.

Pyongyang by Guy Delisle

Guy Delisle is a journalist and animator whose work takes him all over the world, most interestingly to the places that few visit. Pyongyang, his graphic novel of the time he spent working in North Korea, affords readers the chance to see the world's most secretive nation from the inside. The level of access that Delisle was allowed is moderately restricted at best, however, even with such strictures placed upon him, this memoir is still nothing short of fascinating for anyone curious about what life in North Korea is really like.

Breadth and Depth

This is my third year now taking my students along to the HTA Senior History HSC Study Day that's held annually at the University of Sydney, and one thing I've noticed (in comparison to previous years) is the emphasis on breadth and depth when instructing students on the best strategy for tackling Modern History essays. 

It makes sense, and it's not particularly revolutionary in concept, but I really like the use of these terms to bring clarity to the art of writing an extended response in the History topics. I have a tendency to sometimes think of Modern History essays as a poor cousin to the kinds of essays we have students write for Standard and Advanced English, but in the adoption of a model that emphasises breadth and depth it becomes a bit more specific to History. 

At the HSC Study Day, the presenters Jonathon Dallimore and Michael Molkentin both spoke in some detail about this essay model in a periphery sense. Here's an example given by Molkentin in relationship to Part A of the Personality Section of the HSC Modern History exam (for our comrade Trotsky, of course):

Let's say there's a question about Leon Trotsky's rise to prominence (and it's fairly likely, as this is one of the four major dot points of the Trotsky syllabus).

In order to achieve breadth, the student will need to cover at least three different aspects of Trotsky's rise to prominence, with good examples being:

• Trotsky's role in the 1905 Revolution
• Trotsky's writing between 1906-1917
• Trotsky's role in October 1917  

These act as themes for students to hang their response on. You could also call these 'ideas', and it wouldn't be a bad thing at all if a student structured their response as a paragraph per theme or idea.

Of course, it isn't enough to just have breadth. That doesn't make for a very long essay. In addition to breadth, there needs to be depth. That is, there needs to be detail or elaboration on the points that have been made about the themes.

Here is what Molkentin offers as depth for the examples given above:

• Trotsky's role in the 1905 Revolution
• Belief that workers should be involved in the revolution (which contrasted with Lenin's belief that the Party should act as the vanguard of the revolution).
• His role in the Petersburg Soviet as its leader before his arrest.
• Speaking for the workers in the General Strikes (which acted as a prelude to the revolution).

• Trotsky's writing between 1906-17
• Results and Prospects (1906) and its expression of the theory of Permanent Revolution.
• His work as a war correspondent in the Balkans in 1912-13, and on the Western Front.

• Trotsky's role in October 1917
• Making amends with Lenin and the Bolsheviks during 1917.
• His role in the July Days and his continued disagreements with Lenin.
• The seizure of power in October. 

Pretty good, huh? There's more than enough there to fill approximately 17 minutes worth of writing in the HSC exam (17 minutes being the projected time that students should limit themselves to in completing Part A of the Personality Section of the paper).

So, in summation, students are asked to come to terms with questions in the Modern History HSC exam, whether it be the National Study, Conflict Study, Personality Study or even an extended response at the end of the World War I section (the extended response draft structure above is just one example). In doing this, students need to demonstrate both breadth and depth of understanding. This means constructing a response that makes use of multiple themes, and with each theme backed up with sufficient detail. 

That's one way to do it, and I reckon its worth getting your students to give it a try, especially if they're struggling with structuring their responses in exam conditions.